Conjunctions and connectors — mastery

By C1 you handle however, therefore, moreover, furthermore, despite, although. C2 extends the inventory into the formal-register layer — nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, albeit, in light of, by virtue of, on the grounds that, whereas, conversely, in any event, all the same, even so. These are the connectors of polished AmE argument, editorial commentary, academic writing, and legal/policy prose.

The shifts at this level are largely about register and syntax rather than meaning. But and however and nevertheless and that said all signal concession or contrast, but each lands at a different point on the formal/informal dial and each combines with different syntactic frames. Albeit is a single-word concessive that introduces a phrase, not a clause; notwithstanding can precede a noun phrase or appear post-positively; whereas is restricted to comparative-contrastive use in writing.

This lesson covers (1) concessive connectors and their register stratification, (2) contrast and comparison connectors, (3) causal and consequential connectors at C2 register, (4) the whereas, albeit, notwithstanding family and their syntactic constraints, and (5) closure connectors (in any event, in the final analysis, all things considered).

The concessive ladder — informal to formal

Nevertheless and nonetheless

These two are near-perfect synonyms. Nonetheless is slightly more compact; both signal despite that. Used as sentence adverbs.

• *The data are limited. Nevertheless, the trend is striking.
• *He claimed he had not been informed. Nonetheless, the chair held him responsible.
• *The case for war was thin. Nonetheless, the resolution passed.

Use either; alternating between them across a long piece avoids stylistic monotony.

That said, having said that

Conversational-formal pivots. That said opens a sentence that softens or qualifies what was just argued.

• The proposal is ambitious. That said, several provisions are unrealistic.
• Her writing is uneven. Having said that, the best of it is remarkable.

These are softer than nevertheless. They allow the writer to make a concession without retreating from the original claim. AmE op-ed prose uses them heavily.

Even so, all the same

Both signal despite what has just been said:

• The witness was reluctant. Even so, she testified.
• The book was poorly reviewed. All the same, it sold half a million copies.

These read as slightly more conversational than nevertheless but still suitable for polished writing.

Notwithstanding

A formal preposition or post-positive adverb meaning despite. Three syntactic positions:

1. Pre-positive (preposition): Notwithstanding the late filing, the motion was granted.
2. Post-positive (adverb): The late filing notwithstanding, the motion was granted.
3. Sentence-initial (clause connector): *The filing was late. Notwithstanding, the court granted the motion. (rarer)

Notwithstanding is heavily used in US legal prose: Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions, the parties agree…

Albeit

A formal concessive introducing a phrase (often Adj or Adv), not a full clause:

• *He spoke at length, albeit with difficulty. (= although with difficulty)
• *The decision was unanimous, albeit narrow in its reasoning.
• *A modest but real success — albeit one that took longer than expected.

Albeit does NOT introduce a full clause: ✗ *He spoke albeit he was tired → ✓ *He spoke, albeit tired or ✓ *He spoke although he was tired.

Be that as it may

Formal sentence-opener; involves the formulaic subjunctive (lesson 01). Used to acknowledge a counter-argument before moving past it:

• *Critics have called the bill ineffective. Be that as it may, it remains the only viable path forward.

Contrast and comparison connectors

Whereas (contrast)

Subordinating conjunction marking direct comparison between two parallel clauses. Standard in academic and legal writing.

• *The senator favors expanding the program, whereas her colleague opposes it.
• *In the 1950s, urban populations were growing rapidly, whereas rural populations were declining.
• Whereas the original bill emphasized prevention, the revised version focuses on enforcement.

Whereas always introduces a contrast; it is not a synonym for while in temporal sense.

Conversely (reversal)

Sentence adverb signaling that the upcoming claim is the inverse of the preceding one.

• *In wartime, civil liberties contract. Conversely, they expand in periods of peace.
• *Younger voters prefer the challenger. Conversely, voters over 65 favor the incumbent.

Conversely is rhetorically strong; use sparingly. Two converselys in a paragraph is one too many.

In contrast, by contrast

Both are sentence adverbs of comparison:

• *The Senate moved quickly. In contrast, the House delayed for weeks.
• *The plaintiff produced detailed records. By contrast, the defendant offered only summary statements.

Effectively interchangeable; by contrast tilts more BrE in older style guides, but both are now standard AmE.

On the contrary

Used to reject a previous claim and assert its opposite (not just contrast):

• *Some have suggested the policy is failing. On the contrary, every indicator is improving.
• *I have not, on the contrary, been ignoring your letters.

On the contrary is not a synonym for in contrast. It rejects; in contrast compares.

Likewise, similarly

Comparison of similar (not contrasting) elements:

• *The Senate has long resisted such measures. Likewise, the House has rejected three earlier versions.
• *AmE leans toward bare subjunctive. Likewise, US legal writing preserves more archaisms. (likewise is the tighter parallel when comparing two closely-related observations; similarly fits when comparing structurally parallel claims at greater distance)

Causal and consequential connectors

In light of, in view of, given

These introduce a noun-phrase or clausal cause:

• In light of the new evidence, the prosecution withdrew the motion.
• In view of the late hour, the chair adjourned the meeting.
• Given the volatility of the markets, the firm raised its cash position.

In light of is more common in editorial and legal AmE; in view of is more formal/British-leaning; given is the most compact and widely used.

By virtue of

Formal-causal — emphasizing the basis or authority for an action or claim:

• By virtue of his office, the chair has the right to set the agenda.
• By virtue of the contract, the buyer assumes all liabilities.
• *She was disqualified by virtue of her affiliation with the plaintiff.

Heavily used in US legal and corporate writing.

On the grounds that

Causal-justificatory, marking the formal reason given:

• *The motion was denied on the grounds that the deadline had passed.
• *She refused to testify on the grounds that her testimony might incriminate her. (US Fifth Amendment context)
• *The case was dismissed on the grounds of procedural defect. (with noun-phrase complement)

Inasmuch as, insofar as

Formal causal/conditional connectors:

• Inasmuch as the contract was duly executed, the parties are bound. (= to the extent that)
• *Her argument holds, insofar as the data are accurate. (= to the degree that)

Both are heavy formal-register; appear in legal and academic prose. Rare in journalism.

Hence, thus, therefore, consequently, accordingly

Consequential connectors of varying register:

• *The witness lied. Therefore the testimony is inadmissible.
• *The witness lied. Hence the inadmissibility of the testimony. (note: hence often takes a noun phrase, not a full clause)
• *The committee voted to delay the bill. Accordingly, the floor vote was postponed.

Anyway, in any event, at any rate

These are dismissal-or-summary connectors signaling moving on or in any case:

• *The proposal may not pass. Anyway, it has changed the conversation. (conversational)
• At any rate, no one is denying the trend.
• In any event, the verdict stands.
• In any case, the deadline is firm.

Anyway is conversational; in any event and in any case and at any rate are formal. C2 writing uses in any event in editorial prose.

Closure connectors

In the final analysis, when all is said and done, in the last analysis

Heavy closure phrases that mark the writer’s summative judgment:

• In the final analysis, the policy succeeds only if the public buys in.
• When all is said and done, what matters is the result.
• In the last analysis, every constitutional question becomes a question about who gets to decide.

All things considered, on balance, all in all

Hedged-judgment connectors:

• All things considered, the proposal is more promising than its critics allow.
• On balance, the report is favorable.
• All in all, an impressive first year.

These are softer than in the final analysis — they signal the weight of evidence.

To sum up, in sum, in short, in brief

Summative connectors:

• To sum up, the data support the hypothesis.
• In sum, the policy has done more harm than good.
• In short, she had no choice.

Choose by register: in short is conversational; in sum and in brief are formal; to sum up is neutral.

Sentence-position rules

The post-positional though deserves note:

• I’d love to come. I have a deadline, though.
• The data are limited. The trend is striking, though.

This post-positional though is heavily AmE conversational, equivalent to however or nonetheless. It survives in editorial prose as a deliberately softer alternative to a stronger formal connector.

Punctuation with conjunctive adverbs

A common error: treating however, therefore, nonetheless as coordinating conjunctions and using a comma to join two clauses. These are sentence adverbs, not conjunctions, and require either a period or a semicolon.

• ✗ The data are limited, however, the trend is striking. (comma-splice with however — substandard)
• ✓ The data are limited. However, the trend is striking.
• ✓ The data are limited; however, the trend is striking.
• ✓ The data are limited; the trend is striking, however. (post-positional)

This is one of the most common AmE C2-writing punctuation errors.

AmE notes

• Nevertheless and nonetheless are heavily used in US editorial and op-ed prose. Both are AmE-natural.
• Notwithstanding is a US legal-prose staple; in journalism it appears in contracts, court opinions, and policy memos.
• By virtue of, on the grounds that, in light of are AmE legal-and-policy register markers.
• Whereas in legal recitals (Whereas, the parties have agreed…) is a fossilized AmE legal-document opening.
• That said, having said that are AmE editorial-pivot conventions, very common in op-ed writing.
• Post-positional though (I’m tired, though) is unmistakably AmE conversational.

Pragmatic note — the cost of heavy connectors

Pinker, Williams, and other style guides warn against connector-heavy writing. A paragraph laced with however, nevertheless, therefore, consequently, in light of, on the grounds that reads as overworked. C2 writing alternates between explicit connectors and implicit logical flow:

• Implicit: The data are limited. The trend is striking. (juxtaposition signals concession)
• Explicit: *The data are limited. Nevertheless, the trend is striking. (explicit concessive)

Use explicit connectors at logical hinges — where the reader genuinely needs a signal — and let juxtaposition carry the rest.

Common Russian-speaker mistakes

1. Comma-splice with however/nevertheless: The data are limited, however, the trend is striking → The data are limited; however, the trend is striking (semicolon) OR The data are limited. However, the trend is striking (period). Conjunctive adverbs are NOT coordinating conjunctions.
2. Wrong scope of whereas: I worked late whereas she went home (temporal calque from Russian в то время как) → *I worked late; whereas she went home — actually here, while is more natural in temporal sense. Whereas in modern AmE is for contrastive parallel, not temporal.
3. Albeit with a full clause: The decision was unanimous, albeit it was narrow → The decision was unanimous, albeit narrow. Albeit introduces a phrase, not a clause.
4. Over-using therefore/thus: every paragraph closing with Therefore… reads as overworked. Vary with In sum, As a result, Hence, Consequently, or just stop the explicit signaling.
5. Wrong register selection: writing Anyway, the verdict stands in a legal brief → In any event, the verdict stands. Anyway is conversational; legal brief needs in any event.
6. Calquing Russian тем не менее as the less not or other literal phrases: use nevertheless or nonetheless directly.
7. Confusing in contrast and on the contrary: The proposal seemed strong. On the contrary, the committee debated it for weeks (wrong — the debating is not a rejection of the strength) → In contrast, the committee debated it for weeks (correct — the debating is a comparison with what we expected). On the contrary rejects; in contrast compares.

Summary

• Concessive ladder climbs from but / though (universal) through however / nevertheless / nonetheless (formal) to notwithstanding / albeit (very formal/legal).
• Contrast uses whereas, conversely, in contrast/by contrast; rejection uses on the contrary; comparison uses likewise, similarly.
• Causal at C2 register uses in light of, in view of, given, by virtue of, on the grounds that, inasmuch as; consequence uses hence, thus, therefore, accordingly, consequently.
• Notwithstanding has three syntactic positions (preposition, post-positive, sentence-initial); albeit introduces a phrase, not a clause.
• Post-positional though is AmE conversational; that said and having said that are AmE op-ed pivots.
• Conjunctive adverbs require period or semicolon, never comma-splice with the prior clause.

Next lesson: Historic present and tense-switching — narrative present, joke-telling rhythm, podcast/NPR style.